@Article{VKAAKarydis2026,
AUTHOR = {Vlachos, Ioannis and Katerelos, Dionysios T. G. and Avlonitis, Markos and Aravantinos-Zafiris, Nikos and Karydis, Ioannis},
TITLE = {Low-Cost Ambient-Vibration Monitoring of an Unstable Coastal Rock Block: Identification of the Fundamental Resonance of Kounopetra (Kefalonia, Greece) with a Force-Balance IoT Node},
JOURNAL = {GeoHazards},
VOLUME = {7},
YEAR = {2026},
NUMBER = {3},
ARTICLE-NUMBER = {101},
URL = {https://www.mdpi.com/2624-795X/7/3/101},
ISSN = {2624-795X},
ABSTRACT = {Unstable rock blocks and cliffs pose a widespread geohazard, and their mechanical state can be tracked through their ambient-vibration resonance frequencies, whose decrease anticipates progressive failure. Such monitoring is usually performed with expensive broadband instrumentation, limiting spatial and temporal coverage. Here we assess whether a low-cost, IoT-enabled node—built around a Raspberry Pi single-board computer, a 24-bit sigma-delta digitiser and a force- balance accelerometer (Geobit FBA-200)—can identify the resonance of an unstable coastal rock block at the celebrated “moving rock” of Kounopetra (Paliki peninsula, Kefalonia, Greece), a site historically renowned for visually perceptible rocking boulders. We stress that the low-amplitude 7.7 Hz structural eigenvibration characterised here is a distinct phenomenon from the historically documented ∼0.3 Hz macroscopic, quasi-rigid rocking of the boulder: the former is the ambient–vibration resonance of the fractured rock mass, the latter a large-amplitude rigid-body oscillation. Two identical nodes recorded ground acceleration simultaneously for nine hours: one on the fractured Kounopetra rock mass and one on stable ground 25 m away, used as a reference. The rock station exhibits a clear, temporally stable fundamental resonance at f0 = 7.7 Hz (Q ≈ 50, damping ζ ≈ 1%), amplified by up to an order of magnitude relative to the reference and entirely absent from it, whereas a narrow 20.5 Hz line present on both nodes is identified as instrument-related and discarded. A simultaneous two-station analysis further shows that the ambient sources are extremely local (only 0.4% of transient activity is common to the two nodes 25 m apart), quantifying a design constraint for differential schemes. The results demonstrate that a low-cost force-balance node is sufficient to establish a resonance baseline for an unstable rock block, opening the way to dense, affordable early-warning networks; the main limitations are the single vertical component and the short record, which preclude polarisation analysis and long-term tracking of f0.},
DOI = {10.3390/geohazards7030101},
note = {https://cir.di.ionio.gr/karydis/my_papers/VKAAKarydis2026 - Low-Cost Ambient-Vibration Monitoring of an Unstable Coastal Rock Block-Identification of the Fundamental Resonance of Kounopetra (Kefalonia, Greece) with a Force-Balance IoT Node.pdf},
Keywords = {unstable rock slope; ambient vibration; resonance frequency; low-cost seismograph; force-balance accelerometer; rockfall early warning; Kounopetra; Kefalonia}
}